Click on the name of each location for further information.
Majorca
Muslim-ruled island conquered by James I of Aragon (Spain) because of its trade potential
Site where Genoese and Iberians experimented with ship technology and maps later used in the Atlantic
Majorca
Muslim-ruled island conquered by James I of Aragon (Spain) because of its trade potential
Site where Genoese and Iberians experimented with ship technology and maps later used in the Atlantic
Sicily
Multicultural kingdom of the Normans, descendants of Viking conquerors from Normandy, in France
Arabic scientific and medical texts were translated here into Latin, so they could be shared with Western Europe
On the borders of Christianity and Islam
Sicily
Multicultural kingdom of the Normans, descendants of Viking conquerors from Normandy, in France
Arabic scientific and medical texts were translated here into Latin, so they could be shared with Western Europe
On the borders of Christianity and Islam
Cairo
A major trade hub in the Islamic network for merchants and pilgrims on the Hajj
Capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, a powerful state ruled by slave-soldiers
“Mother of cities and seat of Pharaoh the tyrant, mistress of broad provinces and fruitful lands, boundless in a multitude of buildings, peerless in beauty and splendor” (Ibn Battuta)
Cairo
A major trade hub in the Islamic network for merchants and pilgrims on the Hajj
Capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, a powerful state ruled by slave-soldiers
“Mother of cities and seat of Pharaoh the tyrant, mistress of broad provinces and fruitful lands, boundless in a multitude of buildings, peerless in beauty and splendor” (Ibn Battuta)
Mali
Wealthy empire and major source of gold for the medieval world
Merchants and travelers traded salt for gold
Center of Muslim religion and culture for West Africa
Mali
Wealthy empire and major source of gold for the medieval world
Merchants and travelers traded salt for gold
Center of Muslim religion and culture for West Africa
Calicut
A major trade city for the Indian Ocean
Traders used the monsoon winds to exchange spices from the Southeast Asian islands with Chinese and Indian products and goods from the west
Chinese, Hindu, Buddhist and Muslim cultural and religious influences spread to Southeast Asia along with this trade
Calicut
A major trade city for the Indian Ocean
Traders used the monsoon winds to exchange spices from the Southeast Asian islands with Chinese and Indian products and goods from the west
Chinese, Hindu, Buddhist and Muslim cultural and religious influences spread to Southeast Asia along with this trade
Quanzhou
The official and most important trade city on China’s coast for trade with Southeast Asia and Indian Ocean
Chinese products, especially silk and porcelain, were so popular throughout the medieval world that China exported more than it imported
There were foreign communities of Arabian, Persian, Indian, and Southeast Asian merchants and Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim and Christian houses of worship
Quanzhou
One of the largest ports in the world (1100-1400)
“For every shipload of pepper that goes to Alexandria or elsewhere, headed for Christendom, at least one hundred or more, come to the port of Zayton [Quanzhou]” (Marco Polo)
Its medieval western name, “Zayton,” may be the origin of the word “satin”
Click on each trade circle for further information.
Description:
The European circle was the poorest and least developed circle in the 13th century, because there
were not many products from Europe that the Muslims, Indians or Chinese wanted to buy. The Europeans,
on the other hand, were hungry for luxury products from Asia. The first important trade link was
established between Venice and Genoa in northern Italy and Brugesin Flanders. The merchants traveled
overland and met halfway at fairs in Champagne during the 13th century. There they exchanged the fine
wool cloth made in Flanders for the imported goods from Asia. In the 14th century, the Genoese
and Catalans figured out how to navigate through the difficult wind pattern at the Strait of
Gibraltar (the exit of the Mediterranean Sea into the Atlantic Ocean) and then began sailing from
Genoa to Bruges. From the trade city at Bruges, merchants spread the imported products all over
northern Europe.
Main trade cities:
Bruges, Venice, Genoa
Products imported:
cloves, mace, nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger (from Southeast Asia & India), ebony chessmen (from
Indo-China); perfumes (from Madagascar, Tibet, Arabia), jewels (from India), silk, muslin and
brocade (from Persia, China and India), gold and ivory (West Africa), porcelain (from China).
Products exported:
wool cloth (from Flanders), slaves, furs, and silver. Merchants traded grain, wool, fish, wine, and
copper from one area of Europe to another.
Major shippers:
Venetian, Genoese, Catalan and Hanseatic (German) shippers; merchants from Flanders, Venice and
Genoa; Catalan & Hanseatic merchants after the mid-13th century.
Method of Travel:
Overland packtrains (lines of horses, donkeys or wagons loaded with products) in 13th century;
Atlantic galleys and cogs in the 14th century.
Important States:
Venice, Genoa, Florence (Italian city-states), France, Crown of Aragon, Castile, Flanders, Holy
Roman Empire, England
People:
European Christians, French, Germans, Italians, Spanish, Flemish, Catalan, English
Circle II: Mediterranean Circle
Description:
Ships from the Italian city-states of Venice and Genoa picked up the products of Asia (spices, silk,
jewels) from Muslim and Jewish merchants at ports on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea or
on the Black Sea. The Venetians and Genoese sold wool cloth, slaves, furs and silver made or
collected in Europe to Muslim or Jewish merchants. The Venetians and Genoese then sold the Asian
products to wealthy people in Europe. During the Crusades, Latin Christian crusaders conquered
Mediterranean ports which were at the end of the Silk Road trade routes, such as Acre and Tyre. The
crusaders gave the Venetians and Genoese, their fellow Latin Christians, trading rights at those
ports. After 1291, when Baybars of the Mamluk Sultanate (Egypt) defeated the last of the crusaders,
the Venetians moved their businesses to trade at Alexandria and Cairo, and the Genoese moved their
businesses to Caffa (on the north shore of the Black Sea.) All of these ports were at the end of
land trade routes from the east. North African Muslim merchants also sold gold (from Mali) at Cairo
and other North African ports.
Main trade cities:
Alexandria, Cairo, Constantinople, Venice, Genoa, Caffa
Products imported:
cloves, mace, nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger (from India and Southeast Asia), ebony chessmen (from
Indo-China); perfumes (Madagascar, Tibet, Arabia), jewels (from India), silk, muslin and brocade
(from Persia, China and India), porcelain (from China), gold and ivory (West Africa)
Products exported:
slaves (from the Mongol steppe), silver and precious metals, wood and furs (from Russia and
Scandinavia), wool cloth (from Flanders)
Major shippers:
Venetian, Genoese and Catalan shippers; merchants from Venice and Genoa, later Catalan (in the Crown
of Aragon, Spain) and Karimi merchants from Egypt, Jewish and Muslim Arab and North African merchants
Method of Travel:
Mediterranean galleys (wide, shallow ships rowed by slaves); cogs(sailing ships with two or three
decks, and four to six lateen sails)
Important States:
Mamluk Egypt, Venice, Genoa, Crown of Aragon, Byzantine Empire
People:
North Africans (Maghribi), Egyptians, Syrians/Palestinian Arabs, Kurds, Turks, Byzantine Greeks,
Italians (Venetians, Genoese, Sicilians, etc.), Catalans, French
Circle III: Overland Circle
Description:
This route, part of which is the Silk Road, had been traveled for more than a thousand years before
the medieval period. The land of Central Asia is mostly desert, steppe or mountains, and few people
lived along the route. Finding water was a major problem, and bandits often robbed caravans. For
these reasons, the land route was more dangerous and expensive than the sea routes between the
Mediterranean and Indian Oceans and had become much less popular than Circles IV (the Persian Gulf
circle) and V (the Red Sea circle.) When the Mongols conquered their huge empire, the new Mongol
rulers got rid of dangerous bandits, protected caravans, and established peace. Merchants had to pay
the Mongols tribute (like a tax), but this tribute was less than others charged. The Mongols also
maintained a road network, with caravanserais (businesses which provided shelter, food and water for
caravan merchants and their animals) at each stopping point. Mongol rule made the overland route to
the east more cost-effective. Marco Polo and his relatives traveled this route on their journey to
China, and John of Montecorvino, an Italian Franciscan missionary, wrote that it took less than one
year to travel between the Mediterranean and China by this route. When the Mongol empire broke up in
the 14th century, bandits again threatened merchants on the overland route, and merchants switched
back to the safer sea routes.
Main trade cities:
Constantinople, Caffa, Tabriz, Samarkand, Bukhara, Beijing
Products imported:
[Many products from China and East Asia were transported through this circuit to be sold in other
circuits.] paper, silk (from China), spices (from India and Southeast Asia)
Products exported:
slaves, gold, silver, copper
Major shippers:
Central Asian, Persian, Jewish, Turkish and European merchants
Method of travel:
Groups of merchants traveled together in caravans of camels (across desert areas), packhorses or
mules (across mountains) and wagons.
Important States:
Mongol Empire/kingdoms (Khanate of the Golden Horde, Il-Khan Empire, Empire of Chagatai, Empire of
the Great Khan [Yuan China]), Byzantine Empire
People:Mongols, Turks, Central Asian nomads, Muslim, Christian and Jewish merchants
Circle IV: Persian Gulf Circle
Description:
This circle was one of three trade routes that connected the Mediterranean Sea area with the Indian
Ocean and east Asia. The trade route began at the Syrian ports on the eastern coast (also called the
Levant) of the Mediterranean Sea. Before 1280, these ports were controlled by Venice, because they
were located in the Crusader kingdoms. Even though they were sometimes at war with each other,
Muslim and Christian states signed treaties to protect each other’s merchants and their goods.
Traveling inland from the port, merchants crossed the desert to the Tigris River and then took ship
down the river to Baghdad. From there, merchants traveled down the river to the Persian Gulf, and
across the Arabian Sea to India to northwest India (Gujarat), the Malabar coast and/or Ceylon. John
of Montecorvino, an Italian Franciscan missionary, wrote that it took 2 years to travel from the
Mediterranean to China by this route. After the Mongols destroyed Baghdad in 1258 and the Egyptian
Mamluks took over the Crusader kingdoms in 1291, this route became less safe and less popular than
the Red Sea Circuit. The Mamluks no longer allowed Christian merchants to travel across Muslim lands.
Main trade cities:
Tyre, Acre, Baghdad, Oman
Products Imported:
[Many products from China and East Asia were transported through this circle to be sold in other
circles.] silk, paper (from China), spices, jewels (from India and Southeast Asia), silver, slaves
(from Europe and Mongol lands), drugs, perfumes, saffron, teakwood, ivory, pearls, onyx, rubies,
ebony, sugar, aloes, iron, lead, canes, earthenware, sandalwood, glass, and pepper (according to
Muhammad al-Muqaddasi, a geographer born in Jerusalem in 945).
Major shippers:
Arab, Persian, and Indian shippers; Muslim and Jewish merchants from Egypt, Syria, and Persia. The
sources usually call these shippers and merchants “Arabs,” but they probably came from many
different lands, such as Persia, India, Southeast Asia, and east Africa.
Method of travel:
Over land, merchants traveled together in caravans of camels, horses and mules. On the seas and
rivers, shippers used dhows (small trading ships with lateen sails)
Important States:
Mongol Il-Khanate, Crusader Kingdoms, Mamluk Egypt, Turkish sultanates, Persia
Description: This circuit was one of the three middle routes between the Mediterranean and East Asia. After the fall of
Baghdad in 1258 and the Crusader kingdoms in 1291, Mamluk Egypt became the most powerful state in the western Muslim world.
The Mamluks were a dynasty of slave-soldiers. Non-Muslims from Central Asia were sold into slavery as young boys, carried to
Cairo on Genoese ships, and trained as soldiers by older Mamluk slave-soldiers. Talented Mamluk slaves could rise to become
officials in the Mamluk government. When the old sultan died, an experienced and powerful slave-general became the new sultan.
Merchants came from the Egyptian population and were both Muslim and Jewish. The greatest Muslim Mamluk traders, known as the
Karimi merchants, monopolized the trade of Asian products into the Mediterranean and Europe. Travel decreased along the other
two middle routes (circuits III and IV), and Venetian and Genoese merchants came to Cairo to get products from the east in
exchange for slaves from Europe and the Mongol steppe. To protect their monopoly on trade, the Mamluks did not allow Venetian,
Genoese, or any other Christian merchants to sail south and east of Cairo.
Main trade cities:
Cairo, Alexandria, Aden
Products imported:
[Many products from China and East Asia were transported through this circuit to be sold in other
circuits.] slaves (from Europe and Central Asia), paper, ebony, coconuts (from China and India),
metals (from Europe), spices (from southeast Asia), black pepper, cotton cloth, jewels (from India),
porcelain and silk (from China)
Products exported:
papyrus paper, carpets, cotton and linen cloth, glassware, hawks, and sugar. In Cairo there were
many workshops that manufactured goods such as swords and armor, leather objects, furniture, paper
and cloth.
Major Shippers:
Venetian, Genoese, Arab, Persian and Indian shippers; Karimi merchants (private Egyptian Muslim
merchants), Jewish, Muslim and Christian merchants from Venice, Genoa, Egypt, Syria, Persia
Method of Travel:
Boats could sail from the Arabian Sea into the Red Sea and then take a canal over to the Nile River
at Cairo. They could then sail up the Nile to the Mediterranean Sea. Italian ships sailed to
Alexandria in convoys (large groups of ships sailing together.)
Description:
This circle is one of the oldest trade routes in world history. Ships have been crossing it for the
last 4,000 years. This Arabian Sea circle depended on the monsoon winds. The only other way to sail
from India to Arabia was to sail along the coast, which took much more time. Because ships had to
delay six months to a year to wait for the right monsoon winds, merchants and shippers set up homes
and communities in Indian ports, such as Cambay (in Gujarat), Quilon or Calicut (on the Malabar
coast). They intermarried with local Indians and depended on family members and people who had come
from their own home towns to do business. The sources identify these people as Muslims, even though
they probably came from different ethnic groups and religions (some were Jewish or Hindu). Although
north-central India was united in the Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526), the rest of India was divided
into small kingdoms and city-states with local rulers. In this circle there was no one dominant
state controlling trade. Inside there were lots of smaller states and a common culture that valued
trade connections and business. All shippers and merchants respected the right of other ships to
travel and trade in the circle, except there were many pirates who attacked ships.
Main trade cities:
Aden, Hormuz, Cambay, Quilon, Calicut
Products imported:
Silk, porcelain and manufactured luxury goods (from China), glassware (from the Mediterranean),
spices, perfumes (from Southeast Asia) metals, armor, weapons, perfumes (from Egypt, Arabia and
Persia), and slaves (from East Africa and the Mongol steppe). Unlike some other circles, here ships
carried many more ordinary bulk items, such as metal utensils, weapons, grain, sugar, butter, salt,
dried food, horses and lumber, from one place to another within this circle. This means that there
was much more dependence on trade networks in this circle.
Products exported:
Cotton cloth, pepper, jewels (from India), silk and cotton cloth (from Egypt and Persia)
Major shippers:
Arab, Persian, Indian and Southeast Asian shippers; Karimi merchants (from Mamluk Egypt), Jewish,
Arab, Persian, Indian and Chinese merchants. The sources identify the shippers and merchants as
“Arabs” or “Muslims”, but some were probably East African, Persian, Javan,
Chinese, or Filipino.
Method of travel:
The two types of ships used in this circle were junks and dhows. Ships sailed in convoys, following
the monsoon sailing seasons. A ship could sail from west to east across this circle from February to
May and from mid-August to the end of September. A ship could also sail down the east coast of
Africa (the Swahili Coast) to Kilwa and other ports during this monsoon season. A ship could sail
from east to west (and north from Africa) from mid-October to mid-April. See the monsoon maps and
tables for more information.
Important States:
Mamluk Egypt, Persia, Delhi Sultanate
People:
Arabs, Egyptians, Persians, East Africans, Indians
Circle VII: India-Southeast Asia Circuit
Description:
Trade in this circle depended on the monsoon winds. In addition, ships had to sail through the
narrow Strait of Malacca to go from the Bay of Bengal into the South China Sea. Because ships had to
delay six months to a year to wait for the right monsoon winds, merchants and shippers set up homes
and communities in ports on the Coromandel coast (southeast India), the Malay peninsula, and the
Southeast Asian islands. Merchants from China, Southeast Asia, India, Persia and Arabia intermarried
with local people and depended on family members and people who had come from their own home towns
to do business. These merchants carried their religions, beliefs and customs with them and gradually
spread those to the local communities. The biggest cultural influence from 1000 through 1300 was the
Hindu religion and south Indian culture, but Buddhism, Chinese culture, and later the Muslim
religion were also influential. All of the land regions of this circle were divided into small
states or smaller village communities. Those towns and states that were on the coast depended on sea
trade for local trade and luxuries. Their rulers looked to India and China as powerful cultures that
could give them power and prestige. Chinese naval fleets, under Zheng He and other commanders, often
sailed throughout this circle. Shippers and merchants respected the right of other ships to travel
and trade in the circle, except there were pirates, especially in the Strait of Malacca.
Main trade cities:
Palembang (Srivijaya), Malacca (after 1430), Quilon, Calicut
Products imported:
Silk, porcelain and manufactured goods (from China), silk and cotton cloth (from Egypt and Persia),
horses and glassware (from the Mediterranean), metals, armor, weapons, perfumes (from Egypt, Arabia
and Persia), and slaves (from East Africa and the Mongol steppe)
Major Shippers:
Arab, Persian, , Indian, Malay, Sumatran, Tamil (from the Chola kingdom and Coromandel), Javan and
Chinese shippers and merchants. The sources identify the merchants as “Arabs”,
“Muslims” or Chinese, but some were probably East African, Persian, Vietnamese, Javan,
Malaysian, or Filipino.
Method of Travel:
The two types of ships used in this circle were junks and dhows. Ships sailed in convoys, following
the monsoon sailing seasons. A ship could sail from west to east across this circle from February
to May and from mid-August to the end of September. It could also sail south to the islands. A ship
could sail from east to west (and north from the islands) from mid-October to mid-April. The wind
patterns changed at the Strait of Malacca, and ships had to time their arrival there between
December and mid-February if they were going from China to India. Sailing around the southern tip of
India and Ceylon was very difficult. See the monsoon maps and tables for more information.
Important States:
Chola kingdom (Coromandel coast), Srivijaya, China, Khmer (Angkor)
People:
Malay, Sumatran, Javan, Chinese, Indian, Arab, Cambodian, Vietnamese
Circle VIII: China-Southeast Asia Circle
Description:
The empire of China was the most powerful state in the medieval world, and it dominated this
circuit. Chinese naval fleets dominated the smaller kingdoms of Southeast Asia and took tribute from
them for the Chinese emperor. The Chinese usually did not want to conquer lands, but they wanted the
leaders of Southeast Asian states, such as Champa and Srivijaya, to acknowledge Chinese superiority
and authority. Early Ming emperors sent out large naval fleets to extend Chinese power. From 1405 to
1433, Admiral Zheng He commanded seven huge fleets which explored the near Pacific islands,
Southeast Asia, and the Indian Ocean, collected tribute and rare items, and spread Chinese
authority. Because of threats on the northern border and the great cost of the voyages, a new
emperor and his administration ended the voyages in 1433 and abandoned the Chinese fleet. Private
Chinese merchants continued to sail and trade. The Chinese government allowed foreign merchants to
trade in Chinese ports, especially Guangzhou, Hangzhou and Quanzhou. Main trade cities: Guangzhou,
Hangzhou, Quanzhou, Palembang, Malacca (after 1430
Products imported:
black pepper, cotton textiles, pearls, horses (from India), ambergris, frankincense and glassware
(from Arabia, the Mediterranean, or east Africa), spices, sandalwood and tortoiseshells (from
Southeast Asia to China), silk, porcelain, iron products (from China to Southeast Asia)
Major shippers:
Arab, Persian, Indian, Southeast Asian and Chinese shippers; merchants from China, Arabia, Persia,
and India; Muslim, Jewish and a few Christian (Italian) merchants
Method of travel:
Most travel in this circuit was by sea using junks, first made in China, but later also made in
Southeast Asian ports. Ships followed the monsoon sailing seasons to travel between China and the
southern islands. From the seaports, merchants carried the trade goods inland throughout China.
These merchants traveled by boat on rivers and canals, and by packtrain over land.
Important States:
China (under the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties), the Mongol Empire
Description:
This circle connected the north coast of Africa (the Maghrib towns in the west and Cairo in the
east) with the gold region of West Africa. The merchants (who came from North Africa) had to cross
the Sahara Desert by going from oasis to oasis. The merchants carried salt from the northern Sahara
to southern gold region, which did not have enough salt for the people who lived there. Merchants
probably also carried cotton cloth, luxury silks, spices, and manufactured goods from Mamluk Egypt
and Asia. In addition to gold, those merchants bought ivory and slaves from African merchants. The
Muslim religion spread along with the merchants. Many people in West Africa converted to Islam. The
biggest kingdom in West Africa from the 12th to the 15th centuries was Mali. Genoese and Catalan
merchants traveled to north African ports to buy gold, but the Muslim merchants of the Maghrib would
not let them travel south across the Sahara. This was one reason why the Portuguese began sailing
into the eastern Atlantic and down the coast of Africa in the 15th century.
Major trade cities:
Sijilmasa, Cairo, Tunis, Timbuktu, Jenne
Method of Travel:
This circle was mostly desert. Caravans of merchants crossed it riding camels. They traveled from
oasis to oasis, led by experienced guides.
Important States:
Mali, Mamluk Sultanate
People:
Arabs, Maghribis, Egyptians, Berbers (from north Africa), West Africans
Circle X: East Asian Circle
Description:
From the 600s, Korea, Japan and China traded with each other. The Tang dynasty rulers of China
invaded the Silla kingdom in Korea and made it into a vassal state of the Chinese empire. The Silla
and Goryeo (918-1392) kingdoms in Korea had a tributary relationship with China. This meant that
they gave tribute to the emperor and received gifts from him. They could also trade with China.
Chinese culture deeply influenced both Korea and Japan. During the Heian dynasty (794-1185),
Japanese leaders read Chinese literature and copied Chinese styles. During the Medieval period in
Japan (1185-1573) trade between China and Japan grew enormously.
Major trade cities:
Quanzhou, Mingzhou, Hangzhou, Nagasaki
Products imported:
cloves, mace, nutmeg, cinnamon, ginger, tropical wood, pearls, betelnuts, aromatics (camphor,
sandalwood) (from Southeast Asia and India) dyes, medicines, resin (from Sumatra), copper (from
Japan to China), horses (from Korea to China)
Products exported:
silk, porcelain, iron products, manufactured luxury goods, tea, cotton, sugar, cannons, paper (from
China), copper coins (from China to Japan and Korea), swords, copper, silver, hides (from Japan),
horses (from Korea to China)
Major shippers:
Arab, Persian, Indian, and Southeast Asian shippers; Korean, Chinese, Japanese, Arab, Persian,
Indian, and Southeast Asian merchants
Method of travel:
Shippers used junks to sail between China and the Japanese and Korean ports. From the seaports,
merchants carried the trade good inland through China, Japan, Korea and the islands. These
merchants traveled by boat on rivers and by packtrain over land.
Important states:
China (under the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties), Silla kingdom, Goryeo kingdom (both in Korea) Japan
